Voltaire's Nuanced Fondness of Islam

Voltaire’s Nuanced Fondness of Islam

Voltaire, whose real name was François-Marie Arouet (1694-1778), was a French philosopher, writer, and thinker who made significant contributions to the Enlightenment.  

He employed the figures of Prophet Muhammad, Islam, the Turks, and the Islamic civilization as a means to critique Christianity and Judaism, accusing them of fanaticism, irrationality, immorality, persecution, historical inaccuracy, depravity, corruption, and racism. He strongly opposed the Christian faith of his time, viewing it as the most bloody religion and stagnant in terms of intellectual progress. His negative sentiments toward Judaism and the Jewish people bordered on anti-Semitism. In contrast, he upheld Islam's relative superiority, citing its’ straightforward, rational, and transcendent monotheism, as well as its logical discourse, significant contributions to science, philosophy, and intellectual thought, moral principles, religious tolerance, pluralism, and a consultative political system.  He incorporated Islamic concepts and values into his broader framework of the French Enlightenment, and his ideas wielded substantial influence during the era of the French Revolution.

Voltaire was born in Paris, France, into a middle-class family. He received a Jesuit education, which exposed him to classical literature and philosophy, but he soon developed a taste for literature, poetry, and the Enlightenment ideas of his time. Voltaire became one of the leading proponents of reason, tolerance, and freedom of thought during the Enlightenment. He believed that reason and history should be used to challenge traditional authority and religious dogma. He strongly advocated for religious tolerance and criticized the intolerance and persecution that existed in French society. 

He was a prolific writer and playwright. He used his wit and sharp pen to satirize the French monarchy, the Catholic Church, and social injustices. Some of his most famous works include "Candide," a satirical novella that critiques optimism and the absurdity of the human condition, and "Letters Concerning the English Nation" (also known as "Letters on England"), where he praised the English system of government and relative religious tolerance.

Voltaire was a vocal critic of religious intolerance and superstition. He is famously quoted as saying, "I may disagree with what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it."  He believed in the separation of church and state and argued for a more secular society. He used Islam and Muslims as a whip to indict and reform Christianity. His writings and ideas had a profound impact on the Enlightenment movement. His works were widely read and influential throughout Europe. 

Due to his controversial writings and criticisms of the French government and the Catholic Church, Voltaire faced periods of exile and imprisonment. He spent time in England, where English Enlightenment thinkers like John Locke and Isaac Newton influenced him. Both John Locke and Isaac Newton were Socinian sympathizers and early proponents of Unitarianism, a religious belief system that appropriated many Islamic beliefs and deviated from mainstream Christian doctrine, particularly in their rejection of the Trinity and Jesus' divinity.  Instead, they viewed Jesus as a prophet and Messiah. Their religious and political ideas had a significant influence on shaping Voltaire's intellectual framework.

Eventually, he returned to France and continued his writing and advocacy for Enlightenment ideals. Voltaire's legacy as a champion of reason, tolerance, and freedom of thought remains influential to this day. These are also the areas where his intersections with Islamic religion are more marked. His ideas laid the foundation for many principles underpinning modern democratic societies, such as the importance of individual rights, religious freedom, and the separation of church and state. His close interactions with Islamic thought are well reflected in his contributions to enlightenment and modernity.

Voltaire, arguably the most prominent figure of the French Enlightenment, held a position of immense influence within the intellectual and literary circles of his time. Regarded as "the patriarch of European letters" and a writer whose impact on his contemporaries is unparalleled in history, he played a pivotal role in shaping the intellectual landscape of the 18th century. 
Voltaire's Changing Views on Islam and Muhammad

Voltaire's perspective on Islam and Muhammad evolved over time, reflecting a progressive transition in his thinking. Initially, his portrayal of Islam and the Prophet Muhammad in his play "Mahomet" was highly critical and satirical, aimed at challenging religious fanaticism and the perceived shortcomings of organized religion, particularly within the Catholic Church. He used Muhammad as the surrogate of Jesus. This portrayal led to the play's ban in Paris after its third performance in 1742. 

Voltaire himself confessed that his play was neither accurate nor historical but satirical. He acknowledged that “Mahomet, I know, did not actually commit that particular crime which is the subject of this tragedy…”  Voltaire was quite aware of the historical accounts of Prophet Muhammad’s life as he had already read Boulainvilliers’ sympathetic work. To Ahmad Gunny, Voltaire by 1741 has been “on the path to a fairly deep study of Islam.”  Voltaire made Muhammad the scapegoat for Church fanaticism and monarchal persecutions. Rebecca Roubin observes that given “what is known about Voltaire's contempt for Christianity and considering the necessity of subterfuge to express any criticism of religion, it is likely that Voltaire was using Muhammad as a surrogate for Christ. I suggest that it was in this way that Voltaire was able to escape censorship and chip away at the foundation of Christianity.”  Just a few years after Voltaire’s death, Napoleon Bonaparte, the French general and Emperor, also said that Voltaire “aimed at Christ through Mahomet.”  

Progressive Transition in Views

As time passed, Voltaire's views on Islam and Muhammad underwent a significant transformation. John Tolan states that Voltaire “In an essay published with the play in 17 48, he calls Muhammad "a sublime and hearty charlatan.” Yet in later years, Voltaire increasingly praised the religious tolerance preached by Islam and its founder, in sharp contrast with the intolerance that produced the wars of religion in Christian Europe. In his sweeping  historical survey, the  Essai  sur les  mceurs, he presents  Muhammad as a legislator  and a Indeed, in Enlightenment France, Muhammad is increasingly  seen as a sage lawgiver  and  brilliant leader.” 

In his later writings, he began to vindicate Islam and, ultimately, exonerated the Prophet of Islam from the typical European stereotypes. Voltaire's evolution in thought is evident in his expressions of remorse. He admitted that he had depicted Muhammad as more evil than he actually was in "Mahomet." 

Appreciation for Islamic Monotheism

Voltaire, a staunch deist with Socinian connections, shared a deep appreciation for the Islamic concept of transcendental monotheism and divine unity. In his "Philosophical Dictionary" published in 1764, he acknowledged the significance of Islamic monotheism, quoting from the Qur'an's 122nd Sura al Ikhlas (Chapter of Sincerity), which emphasizes the oneness of God and the dissimilarity between God and His creation. Voltaire recognized that these words had a profound impact in the East, contributing to the success of Islamic conquests.

One of Voltaire's notable intellectual pursuits was his advocacy for the deist principles characteristic of the Enlightenment era. These principles bore a striking resemblance to the unitary beliefs found in Islamic theology. Voltaire displayed a profound interest in the Islamic faith, particularly through his enthusiastic exploration of George Sale's translation of the Qur'an. Voltaire’s fascination with Sale’s translation can be gauged from his August 14, 1738 letter to Thieriot in which he wrote: “There is a devil of an Englishman who has made a very beautiful translation of the Holy Alcoran, preceded by a preface far more beautiful than all the alcorans of the world.”  Just two years later he wrote to Frederick II recommending Sale’s translation to him in the following words: “M. Sale, who has given us an excellent translation of the Alcoran into English, wants us to regard Mahomet as a Numa and a Theseus.” 

Voltaire's engagement with the Qur'an is evident in the extensive marginal notes he made while reading Sale's translation. These notes serve as compelling evidence of his deep involvement in the study of the Qur'an. 

Significantly, Voltaire integrated his comprehension of Islamic teachings into his comprehensive body of work, encompassing subjects such as universal history, criticism and reform of Christianity, Judaism, European/French societies; comparative theology, political philosophy, religious liberty, human rights, justice, reason, science, civilization, and culture. He meticulously examined, analyzed, used, abused, and at times, intentionally exploited and misinterpreted the Islamic perspective, strategically incorporating it into his intellectual arsenal. This deliberate and selective appropriation served as a means to break away from the irrational and supernatural aspects of Judeo-Christian religio-political hierarchies and persecutory theologies, ushering in a new era characterized by Deistic rational discourse, inclusive spirituality, a pluralistic worldview, an egalitarian society, and a decentralized republican form of governance. The utilization, appropriation, and manipulation of Islamic elements played a pivotal role in this dialectical struggle and left an enduring imprint on his work. Notably, certain excerpts from Voltaire's annotations on Sale's Qur'an were seamlessly integrated, with minimal alteration, into Voltaire's own writings.

Furthermore, Voltaire demonstrated an awareness of Boulainvilliers' sympathetic biography of Muhammad, which he seemed to have approached with equal enthusiasm. He drew from sources like Abu 'l Fida's traditional Muslim biography of Muhammad, translated into French by John Gagnier in 1723. Voltaire's lifelong commitment to the study of Islam and its Prophet served as a valuable resource for his reformative endeavors. 

Ziad Elmarsafy, a University of St. Andrews professor, observes that, irrespective of Voltaire's evolving intellectual phases—ranging from his exploration of fanaticism in the 1730s to his engagement with universal history in the 1740s and 1750s, and his later divergence from the Encyclopédie in the 1770s—his stance was consistently shaped by his perspective on Islam and Muhammad. In essence, Islam became not only a subject of intellectual exploration but an integral part of Voltaire's identity, enriching his sharp and incisive perspectives that continue to resonate in his writings. 

Voltaire was not alone in his appreciation of Islamic teachings and history. Many Enlightenment thinkers, including Locke, Newton, Stubbe, Toland, Blount, Tindal, Hume, Hobbes, Harrington, Boulainvilliers, Bayle, Spinoza, and Leibniz, held similar views and had connections to Socinianism, Unitarianism, or Deism. These thinkers engaged extensively with Islamic ideas, figures, and history, adapting them to their own contexts. Their Enlightenment views were shaped by centuries of Islamic religious, political, scientific, theological, intellectual, and philosophical interactions. 

Voltaire’s Complex Relationship with Religion

Voltaire held a complex relationship with religion, particularly with Christianity and Judaism. He was openly hostile to Christianity, its religious mysteries, intolerance, the clerical establishment, and political thought. He called it the most infamous superstition.  He was part of a broader Enlightenment movement that rejected many traditional Christian doctrines, including the belief in a triune God, the concept of incarnation, the idea of salvation through the atoning death of Jesus Christ, and the doctrine of Original Sin. Instead, the Enlightenment thinkers embraced proto-Islamic ideas such as God's unity, salvation through morality and good deeds, the inherent goodness of human nature, rational religious discourse, criticism of the Bible, religious toleration, and a strong belief in human dignity.

Voltaire’s Critique of Christianity

Voltaire's critique of Christianity of his time is characterized by its irrationality, superstition, paganism, and intolerance. He saw Christianity, particularly in its dominant Catholic form, as a religion plagued by dogma, ritualism, and religious persecution. He critiqued the Gospels, particularly examining their internal contradictions, the depiction of Jesus' trials, the crucifixion and resurrection narratives, and the development of Christian dogma. 

He points out that the Gospel of Matthew narrates the birth of Jesus in Bethlehem, with the visitation of magi or kings following a star to witness the event. King Herod's reaction to this news is the massacre of all children under two years of age. However, the Gospel of Luke presents a contradictory account, asserting that Joseph and Mary remained in Bethlehem for six weeks after Jesus' birth and then traveled to Jerusalem and Nazareth. The two Gospels differ in terms of Jesus' family's movements, and these discrepancies are significant. Voltaire emphasizes the inconsistency of these narratives, questioning their credibility. 

Moreover, Voltaire draws attention to the Gospel authors' contradictions regarding the timing of Jesus' life events, his miracles, the Last Supper, and the day of his crucifixion. He argues that these contradictions are evident across the Gospels, and this discrepancy undermines the reliability of the texts.

Voltaire notes that there were originally forty-nine Gospels composed by early Christians, all of which exhibited even more flagrant contradictions. Eventually, four Gospels were chosen to be included in the New Testament, but their harmonization remained a challenge. Voltaire implies that the mere fact that these contradictions exist calls into question the authenticity of the Gospels as reliable historical accounts. 

Voltaire's critique extends to the crucifixion and resurrection narratives in the Gospels. He describes Jesus' first encounter with Satan as an absurd adventure and mocks the Gospel accounts of Jesus transforming during the night and causing the appearances of Moses and Elias. Voltaire ridicules the Gospel writers for their portrayal of Jesus insulting the Pharisees, calling them derogatory names, and ultimately being handed over to justice and executed alongside two thieves. He specifically highlights the claim that the earth was darkened at midday during Jesus' crucifixion, dismissing it as an incredible miracle that should have been documented widely by contemporary writers. 

Voltaire also criticizes the Gospel's portrayal of Jesus' resurrection and his prediction of the immediate second coming and end of the world, which did not come to pass. He questions the believability of such events and their theological significance.

Voltaire delves into the history of the development of Christian dogma, emphasizing the role of interpolations and falsifications in shaping early Christian beliefs. He notes that initially, the sect of Jesus operated in concealment, but as time passed, they grew bolder. Some Platonic metaphysics became intertwined with the Nazarean sect, transforming Jesus into the "logos," or the Word of God, eventually achieving the status of consubstantiality with God the Father. This theological development led to the formulation of the Trinity. 

Voltaire asserts that early Christian writings were altered to support these emerging doctrines. Passages were added, and even historians like Josephus were falsified to mention Jesus, despite Josephus being too serious a historian to include such a reference. Voltaire points out that the Nazareans resorted to various forms of trickery, fraud, and imposture to promote their beliefs. 
Voltaire's critique highlights the fragmentation of the Christian sect into numerous factions, each holding differing theological beliefs. He observes that these sects engaged in violent disputes, resulting in massacres, especially during theological disputes. Kings and princes often became embroiled in these conflicts, leading to further violence within the Church.

Voltaire strongly criticizes the doctrine of transubstantiation, which asserts that the bread and wine consecrated during the Eucharist ceremony become the actual body and blood of Christ. He remarks that various nations view this doctrine with horror, emphasizing that it is considered the pinnacle of human folly. Voltaire even quotes Cicero, who argued that humanity, in all its madness, had never conceived of the idea of consuming the God they adore. He contends that the doctrine of transubstantiation rests on a misinterpretation of figurative language, asserting that the Roman Catholic Church has wrongly interpreted symbolic language as literal. He further argues that for centuries, this misunderstanding has caused unnecessary bloodshed in religious conflicts. 
In his article on "Superstition," Voltaire highlights the role of dogma in religious disputes. He observes that terms like "consubstantiality" and "transubstantiation," which are difficult to pronounce and understand, have been at the center of theological debates, leading to significant violence and bloodshed. Voltaire suggests that these disputes are often rooted in misunderstandings and misinterpretations of religious concepts. He points out that such debates have led to torrents of bloodshed, indicating the destructive consequences of theological dogmatism. 

Voltaire praises the Socinians and Unitarians, religious groups that rejected mainstream Christian doctrines such as the Trinity and the divinity of Christ.  He applauds their inclination toward the worship of one God, freed from superstition. Voltaire mentions that many theologians have already embraced Socinianism (Unitarianism), particularly in England, Germany, and the provinces of France. He underscores the presence of wise doctors and thinkers who seek the opportunity to break away from the theological constraints of traditional Christianity.

Voltaire's Call for Reformation

In his critique, Voltaire issues a call for religious reformation. He emphasizes that it is time to complete the work of reformation and to challenge the dogmas that have persisted despite changing times. Voltaire encourages his readers to question why they continue to teach beliefs they do not genuinely hold. He argues that perpetuating such doctrines makes individuals guilty before God. 
His harsh criticism of Christianity can be understood through the following key points:

Irrationality: Voltaire found many aspects of Christian doctrine to be irrational. He questioned the concept of the Holy Trinity, transubstantiation (the belief in the literal transformation of bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ), and other supernatural elements that seemed to defy reason.

Superstition: Voltaire believed that Christianity, with its reliance on miracles, relics, and sacred objects, was steeped in superstition. He saw these beliefs as undermining the rationality of religion.

Paganism: Voltaire argued that Christianity had incorporated pagan elements into its practices and rituals, further diluting its claim to a pure monotheistic faith. He pointed to the veneration of saints and relics as examples of such syncretism.

Intolerance: One of Voltaire's strongest objections to Christianity was its history of religious intolerance and persecution. He decried the numerous instances of violence, including the Inquisition and religious wars, carried out in the name of Christianity. His enthusiasm for religious tolerance inspired him to appreciate Islamic ideals of religious pluralism. Voltaire was dead against religious persecution. Oliver Goldsmith observes that “The most detestable and odious of all political sins is, indisputably, religious persecution; in this is to be traced the source of the early predisposition of Voltaire, and of the honorable enthusiasm that colored nearly the whole of his long life.”  Voltaire argued” that no Christian nation allows the Turks to build a mosque on its soil, whereas the Turks allow all the Greeks to have churches on their soil.”  His fight for freedom of conscience urged him to admire Caliph Omar, the disciple of Muhammad, for giving the Jews and Christians “full liberty of conscience”  after the conquest of Syria and Jerusalem. 

Voltaire’s Critique of Judaism

He also held negative views of Judaism, its concept of an anthropomorphic God, racial contours, biblically sanctioned violence, and the concept of Jews as the chosen people of God. Voltaire's attitude towards Jews can be characterized as verging on anti-Semitism.  "You never find a generous action in the annals of the Hebrews.  They knew neither hospitality nor liberality nor clemency.  Their sovereign bliss is to practice usury with foreigners and this spirit of usury is so rooted in their hearts, that is the continual object of the figures they employ in the eloquence which is peculiar to them. Their glory is to deliver to fire and slaughter the small villages of which they may be able to take possession. They assassinate their masters when they are slaves, and they never know how to pardon when they are victorious; they are the enemies of the human race." 

He held negative views about Jewish traditions, beliefs, and their historical claims. He was dead against Biblical Judaism as an obsolete ritualistic, irrational, and immoral orthodoxy.  Writing about Jews in his Letter of Memmius to Cicero in 1771, Voltaire opined: “They are, all of them, born with raging fanaticism in their hearts, just as the Bretons and the Germans are born with blond hair.”  In an essay the following year, Voltaire adjudicated on Jews with the words: “You deserve to be punished, for this is your destiny.” 

The prominent American scholar, activist, and Conservative Rabbi Arthur Hertzberg described the incurable disdain that Voltaire harbored against the Jews: “It is possible to redeem Europe by reviving its attachment to its own fundamental nature and tradition. European men can be freed effectively of Christianity because Christianity is here a long-standing infection; it is not one of the foundations of the European spirit, deriving from its character. The case of the Jews is radically different. Being born a Jew and the obnoxiousness of the Jewish outlook are indissoluble; it is most unlikely that "enlightened" Jews can escape their innate character. The Jews are subversive of the European tradition by their very presence, for they are the radically other, the hopelessly alien. Cure them of their religion and their inborn character remains.” 

Voltaire was critical of certain aspects of Jewish history, which he regarded as morally questionable. For example, he criticized the biblical account of Abraham's treatment of Hagar and Ishmael, arguing that Abraham should have provided them with more support when he sent them into the desert. As an appendix to Abraham’s supposed desertion of Hagar and Ishmael, Voltaire states that “It is true that the posterity of Agar’s son Ishmael took ample revenge on the posterity of Sarah’s son Isaac, in favor of whom he had been cast out. The Saracens, descending in a right line from Ishmael, made themselves masters of Jerusalem, which belonged by right of conquest to the posterity of Isaac. I would have made the Saracens descend from Sarah; the etymology would then have been neater.” 

Voltaire's skepticism extended to Jewish claims about their history and heritage. He accused Jews of treating their history and ancient stories as commodities, much like tailors turning old coats for resale.  Voltaire believed that Jews presented themselves as a nation that had taught others, while historical evidence, including the writings of Jewish historian Josephus, contradicted this narrative. He argued that ancient kingdoms in Asia had flourished before the Jews had a small piece of land to call their own, which challenged the idea of Jewish influence on other civilizations.  “The Jews, then, treat their history and ancient fables as their clothesmen treat their old coats—they turn them and sell them for new at as high a price as possible. It is a singular instance of human stupidity that we have so long considered the Jews as a nation which taught all others, while their historian Josephus himself confesses the contrary. It is difficult to penetrate the shades of antiquity; but it is evident that all the kingdoms of Asia were in a very flourishing state before the wandering horde of Arabs, called Jews, had a small spot of earth which they called their own—when they had neither a town, nor laws, nor even a fixed religion. When, therefore, we see an ancient rite or an ancient opinion established in Egypt or Asia, and also among the Jews, it is very natural to suppose that this small, newly formed, ignorant, stupid people copied, as well as they were able, the ancient, flourishing, and industrious nation.” 

Rejection of the Promised Land Concept:

Voltaire challenged the core theological concept of the Jewish tradition, the "Promised Land." He criticized the biblical account of God's promises to Abraham, particularly the idea that God had pledged to give the land to Abraham's descendants forever. Voltaire pointed out that the Jews had never possessed this extensive territory and questioned how God could make such promises without fulfilling them. Voltaire cut through the roots of Jewish consciousness by totally rejecting their concept of the Promised Land. He argued that “The Lord appeared to him after he went out of Egypt, and said, “Lift up now thine eyes, and look from the place where thou art, northward and southward, and eastward, and westward. For all the land which thou seest, to thee will I give it, and to thy seed forever.” The Lord, by a second oath, afterwards promised him all “from the river of Egypt unto the great river, the river Euphrates.” The critics ask, how could God promise the Jews this immense country which they have never possessed? And how could God give to them forever that small part of Palestine out of which they have so long been driven?” 

He also dismissed the concept of an excessively numerous Jewish population, as promised by God to Abraham. Voltaire argued that, despite regarding marriage as a sacred duty, the Jewish population was not as numerous as the biblical promises implied. This led him to conclude that either God did not have the power to fulfill these promises or that such promises were never made in the first place. “Again, the Lord added to these promises, that Abraham’s posterity should be as numerous as the dust of the earth—“so that if a man can number the dust of the earth, then shall thy seed also be numbered.” Our critics insist there are not now on the face of the earth four hundred thousand Jews, though they have always regarded marriage as a sacred duty and made population their greatest object.” 

In his critique, Voltaire depicted Jews as considering themselves superior to other nations while historically being perceived as the lowest among both Muslims and Christians. He questioned the validity of their theological claims and called them "the most contemptible of all"  and “Among the Mussulmans and the Christians they are the lowest of all nations, but they think themselves the highest.” 

Voltaire's critique excluded Judaism and Christianity from being true religions due to what he perceived as irrationality and immorality in their texts and doctrines. He pointed to elements in the Hebrew Bible and the Old Testament that he found offensive to purity, charity, good faith, justice, and reason. His hostility towards Christianity, particularly the New Testament, was marked by his belief that it hindered humanity's direct relationship with God and caused fanaticism and persecution. He critiqued various Christian doctrines, the Bible's credibility, and the portrayal of God in Christian theology. Voltaire's "Sermon of the Fifty"  reflected his true sentiments about the Old and New Testaments, while his definition of a true religion emphasized morality and universality, excluding Judaism and Christianity based on his perception of their irrationality and immorality. Islam fitted well in his definition of a true religion.

Voltaire's Appreciation for Islam

In contrast to his critical stance toward Christianity and Judaism, Voltaire expressed a more nuanced view of Islam. He found certain aspects of Islamic beliefs and ideals appealing and worthy of admiration. Some of the key elements that influenced his relatively favorable view of Islam include:
Simplicity: Voltaire noted the simplicity of Islamic doctrine, which centered on the belief in one God and the prophethood of Muhammad. He appreciated the absence of complex theological concepts and dogmas.

Rationality: Islam's emphasis on monotheism and the absence of intermediaries, such as priests or saints, appealed to Voltaire's sense of rationality. He saw Islam as a religion that did not rely on miracles or mysteries.

Universality: Voltaire recognized the universal message of Islam, which extended beyond a particular ethnic or cultural group. He appreciated Islam's potential for unifying diverse populations under a common religious banner.

Toleration: Voltaire was impressed by Islam's historical record of religious tolerance, especially during the time of Caliph Omar. He admired the fact that Muslims allowed Jews and Christians to practice their faith freely in territories they conquered.

Voltaire's Fight for Religious Tolerance

Voltaire's enthusiasm for religious tolerance played a significant role in shaping his views on religion, particularly his admiration for certain aspects of Islam. He was a staunch advocate for freedom of conscience and believed that religious persecution was a detestable sin. This commitment to religious tolerance inspired his appreciation for the tolerance he perceived in Islam.
Voltaire argued that Christian nations did not afford Muslims the same religious freedom that Muslims provided to Christians within their territories. He contrasted this with the example of Caliph Omar, who, after the conquest of Syria and Jerusalem, granted Jews and Christians "full liberty of conscience."  Voltaire viewed this historical instance as a model of religious tolerance and coexistence.
 His critical stance toward Christianity and Judaism led him to seek alternative perspectives that could challenge their claims to religious truth. In this context, Islam, the rival faith, its Prophet, history, morality, and doctrines became a valuable tool for Voltaire to dissect the flaws he perceived in Christianity and Judaism. 

There was a crystal-clear evolution in Voltaire’s interactions with Muhammad and Islam. Boulainvilliers’ Muhammad, the rational, tolerant, balanced, just, Deistic, sage lawgiver was well reflected in Voltaire’s writings and Voltaire’s positive depictions of Muhammad were mirrored in almost all the later French enlighteners.

Voltaire positioned Islam in a comparative analysis against both Judaism and Christianity to establish Islam's relative superiority in religiopolitical theology, morality, religious tolerance, civilizational contributions, geopolitics, and overall rational epistemology. His disdain for Christianity and Judaism, coupled with his simultaneous expressions of admiration for Islam and Muslims, serve as compelling evidence of Voltaire's profound fascination with Islam. F. M. Grimm was not wrong while reporting in the January 1, 1754 issue of the Correspondance litteraire, when he wrote: “The reproach that was leveled at Voltaire in Mercure de France at the time of the Histoire des Croisades will probably be repeated; namely that he has a secret fondness for the religion of the Turks; he sides with them as much as he can, and almost always at the expense of the Christians. Wags say that he will go to get circumcized in Constantinople, and that that will be the end of his story.” 

Voltaire also compared the traits, qualities, and accomplishments of Arabs with those of Jews, often favoring the Arabs. While Voltaire's critique of religious traditions extended to all three major monotheistic religions, his interest in Islam appeared to reflect a certain fondness and appreciation, as revealed in his writings.